Tarumahima (Glory of trees / Awareness program)

This is exclusively an Awareness program that highlights the greatness of trees and strategies that can be adopted to conserve them at ex-situ and in-situ levels. Evaluating the aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity, ancient Indian scholars arrived at the conclusion that the Trees can survive without man, but man cannot survive without trees. 

Nurturing the star trees was the concept evolved by Vrikshayurveda as part of the biodiversity conservation. To implement this concept, they developed a holistic strategy with people’s participation, by establishing connectivity between stars, plants, human beings, animals and birds. Their vision was to establish an ex-situ conservation site with 27 trees that possess high carbon sequestration potential, therapeutic and aesthetic value. This concept demands further scientific investigations regarding the climate change mitigation properties, carbon sequestration potential as well as dust and atmospheric pollution control by these trees.

There are certain concepts and effective strategies evolved by the ancient Indian scholars as part of biodiversity conservation. They also developed holistic strategies with people’s participation, by establishing connectivity between stars, plants, human beings, animals and birds. This vision led to the establishment of an ex-situ conservation site with 27-star trees, which possess high therapeutic and aesthetic value. The basis of the star tree concept was to enhance the conservation of these rare trees to attain the ultimate goal of biodiversity conservation through people’s participation, by implementing various Eco-educational programs. They evolved a two-pronged approach for implementing this special tree conservation package program, consisting of solo action and community participation.

“One man one tree” - “Plant a tree and save lives” were the mantras for solo action, while construction and popularization of “Nakshatravana” (Astro-forest) were carried out through community participation. Stars, plants, and men were the major players in these action programs, which unraveled the unknown power of healing.

Evaluating the aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity, ancient Vrikshayurvedic scholars arrived at the conclusion that “Trees are the most valuable living things on earth” and “Trees can survive without man, but man cannot survive without trees”.As part of the biodiversity conservation strategy, the scholars coined a message for awareness and popularization among the public. The message is given below:

“Desakoopa sama vapi desavapi samo hrada:

Desahrada sama: putro desaputra samodruma”

(Sarangadhara padhathi – Tarumahima)

“Ten wells are equivalent to one pond

Ten ponds are equivalent to one lake

Ten lakes are equivalent to one son

Ten sons are equivalent to one tree”

Stars and trees at a glance

The stars are considered as characteristically massive, self-luminous objects, shining by radiation derived from internal energy sources. Usually, living beings release two kinds of energy, positive and negative. Sometimes they also remain neutral. According to the astrological connotations, each star has its own name. Every person born on earth lives under the direct influence of any one of the stars and each one of us is associated with a tree, animal, and bird.

The powerful energy that we release will be directly absorbed and stored by “Star trees”.These trees further transform the energy and release it towards the human being for their sustenance. This has been turned and programmed at the genetic level, and will be expressed in a rhythmical or cyclic manner, like the changing seasons. You may experience the season like spring, summer, autumn and winter in your body and mind. Aggravation and depletion of such expressions sometimes create natural catastrophes and you may be under severe stress and tension. (Rajasekharan et al., 2005)

The original stanza that describes the stars and corresponding trees are given below for reference

“Atha vakshyami nakshatravrikshanagamalekshithan

Poojyanayushpradamchaiva vardhanatpalanatapi

Vishadru dhatri tharu hemadhugdha

Jamboosthathakhadirakrishanavmsa: Aswathanagoucha

vata: palasa: Plakshasthatambashtatharu: kramena:

Visvarjunou chaiva vikamkatho atha Sakesara:

sabarasarja vanchula: Sapanas arkacha sami kadamba-

Sthathambra nimbou madhukadruma: kramat

Ami nakshatra vriksha: siu: saptavimsati:

Aswinyaati kramadevamesha nakshatra padhati:”

(Sarangadhara padhathi)

“Plant your own star tree within your reach or vicinity

Nurture her with affection and love

She will bless you with health, wealth, happiness and

prosprity”

(Rajasekharan et al., 2005)

Compared to 27-star trees mentioned in the almanacs, seven are different according to the original reference in Vrikshayurveda. On verification it was found that certain stars corresponding to the trees in the Almanac are illogical for example:- the local names of the tree species mentioned against Aayilyam, the 9th star mentioned in the almanac(Malayalam) are: (I) Narakom (Citrus sp.), (ii) Nangu (Ladiosiphon eriocephalus) and (iii) Naga(Mesua ferrea). On analysis, it was found that the sign of the star Aayilyam is directly connected to the Snake God. The tree species mentioned as (i) and (ii) does not have any direct connection with the sign of the star. But the tree species mentioned as (iii) Naga, meaning the serpent, itself denotes its direct link with the sign of the star. The original Sanskrit name mentioned in the text is Naga which is translated into Malayalam as Nagapoo (the flower of the serpent world), and botanically identified as Mesua ferrea. Note: The local names Narakom and Nangu erroneously translated into Malayalam.

Stars and trees

The corrected version of the other six plants are

1. Gmelina arborea, locally known as Kumbil (*Krishna) (existing plant name in the Almanac is Karimaram (Diospyros ebenum)

2. Symplocos cochinchinensis locally known as Pachotti (Saabara*)

(existing name in the Almanac is Vetti (Aporosa lindleyana),

3. Vateria indica locally known as in the Almanac is Kunthirikkom (Sarja*) (existing plant name in the Alamanac is Pinus longifolia(pine),

4. Barringtonia racemosa locally known as Samudrakai(Vanchula*) (existing plant name in the Almanac is Vanchi/Attuvanchi (Salix tetrasperma/Ochreinauclea missionis),

5. Neolamarkia cadamba locally known as Kadambu (Kadamba*) (existing name in the Almanac is Kitha/Thazampoo (Pandanus odoratissimus),

6. Azadiracta indica locally known as Veppu (Nimba*) (existing name in the Almanac Karimpana(Borassus flabellifer).

The life span of trees

According to Ashtangahridaya Nigundu, Ashvatha (Ficus religiosa) has a maximum life span of 2200 years.

“Salmali vatadhyapeshaya na swachiram thishtadi Asvatha”

It denotes that Ashvatha (Ficus religiosa) have a maximum life span among all tree species on Earth.

“Shatir varsha sahasrani vana jeevati salmati)”

The life span of Bombax ceiba is estimated has six hundred years

Benefits of planting trees in homesteads

This is one of the peculiar and popular conservation strategies evolved by the ancient Vrikshayurvedic experts with a view to establishing linkages between cultures, religions, and beliefs. The table given below shows the abstract of various concepts and strategies once popular among the public. It is recommended that one who plants more edible trees in his garden reach the divine world of Lord Siva and will be able to reside there for more than three yugas. In short, Vrikshas are able to provide four Purashartas such as Dharma(eternal law), Artham(wealth), Kamam (desire) and Moksham (salvation).

Planting of tree species having Carbon sequestration potentially

Carbon sequestration means capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere or capturing anthropological (human) CO2 from large-scale stationary sources like power plants before it is released to the atmosphere. Once captured, the CO2 gas (or the carbon portion of the CO2) is put into long-term storage. CO2 sequestration has the potential to significantly reduce the level of carbon that occurs in the atmosphere as CO2.

Participatory approach for planting trees

It is interesting to note that the concept of planting trees having carbon sequestration potential is described in ancient Vrikshayurvedic literature. According to Acharya Sarangadhara, one who plants the following plants in a prescribed number and constructs a pond nearby will never reach the world of naraka (place of torment).

Carbon sequestration of tree species

Upavanaprakriya (Landscape / Gardening)

In each and every house, one should construct Lathagriham (Pergolas covered with flower-bearing climbers/creepers which providing shade and ambiance for relaxation). This section highlights the importance of constructing summerhouses, designing beautiful gardens, parks/children’s parks, pond, small lakes etc. This concept and design can be integrated with modern architecture to design summerhouses, gardens, parks, etc. with a traditional outlook.

LANDSCAPING/GARDENING CONSTRUCTION OF LATHAGRIHAM (PERGOLA COVERED WITH CLIMBERS)

Lathagriham (pergola covered with climbers) is a part of the garden constructed exclusively by planting climbers having healthy green foliage. One of the climbers recommended covering the roof of Lathagriham is Atimuktakam (Jasminum sambac). Due to its dense foliage and profuse flowering, it will attract Bhramas (a large number of black beetles) and protect from direct sunlight and wind. The special feature of the Lathagriham is the presence of fallen aromatic jasmine flowers on the floor, which will create a pleasurable feeling. The added attraction of the Lathagriham is a swing made by the climbers with the support of nearby the branches of trees.

Construction of Kreedaparvatam (similar to rockery)

Adjacent to Upavanam, Kreedaparvatam (similar to rockery) is constructed with components like beautiful Nikunchas (small green huts) constructed with small branches of trees and climbers, artificially made caves, valleys, rock gardens, caves decorated with diamonds, walls of caves depicted with high quality metals and minerals and path designed exclusively for walking freely. The added attraction of Kreedaparvatam is the presence of dancing and singing peacocks. The presence of peacock keeps snakes away from the Kreedaparvatam.

Construction of Pushkarini (attractive lakes) Sarovara (tanks) and Tadagam (ponds)

Attractive lakes, tanks and ponds (Pushkarini, Sarovara, Tadagam) are some of the components to be constructed nearby Upavanas. To create an aesthetic water habitat, flocks (or in pairs) of swana (Hamsa/Kalahamsa) are introduced. They will swim and play with sweet humming sound (Kilola-kalarava). The trees should be planted near the shore of the tanks and ponds to create aesthetic beauty by reflecting their beautiful shadow in the water.

Construction of Dheerkhila (large lake)

Dheerkhika is a specially designed large lake in which houseboats moves. Protection from wild aquatic animals should be ensured for a safe and comfortable boating. Beautiful flowering plants/trees should be planted around the lake to attract birds and it should be beautified with Kamalam (Nelumbo nucifera), Kumutam (Nymphea nouchali) and Nilotpala (Monochoria vaginalis). The flowering Nilotapala in this lake will resemble the eyes having black pupil with black brows of a pretty woman.

Construction of tank/pond (Sarovara and Tadagam)

A tank or pond with proper drainage system should be constructed in a a suitable location within the Upavana campus. It should be filled with clear water. The design should be in such a manner that the shadow of garden is reflected on water. Further the design should reflect moon light and scatter and diffuse it dominantly covering whole tank. This will provide an aesthetic view similar to the milky white rays of moon light, reflecting on water.

Construction of a Kaldaligriha (summer rest house)

Kadaligriha is another beautiful component of Upavana, specially designed as rest house for stay during the summer season. A Mandapa is constructed in the middle portion of Deerkhika, which is surrounded by trees/ flowering plants. The Mandapa is decorated by fixing white and attractive prism. Near the Mandapa naturally, air-conditioned Kadhaligriham should be constructed. Construction of a detailed version of Kadaligriha and Kreedaparvada has mentioned in Kadambari written by Bhattabana.

The component, which is adjacent to the Kadaligriha, is the well(Kupa) with sufficient water, which can effectively be utilized for the irrigation of the garden. The well should be protected with stone boundary.

To avoid the contamination of well water, it is treated with powder prepared from Anjanam (Grey Blackstone), Musta (Cyperus rotundus), Useeram (Chrysopogan zizanioides), Naga (Mesua ferrea), Koshatakam (Trichosanthes lobeta), Amalaki (Phyllanthus emblica) and Kataka Phalam (Strychnos potatorum). This helps to purify the water. Apart from this, whenever the water is dirty (Kalusham), pungent (Katu), tastelesas (Virasam) salty or saline (Lavnam) and have bad color (Asubhagandhi), this powder recipe is added (diluted) in water. As a result it becomes clean, transparent (Amala), tasty (Surasa), having natural aroma (Sasughandhi) and potent with various qualities (Sunayukta).

Chithreekaranam (Research on Organic agriculture / Horticulture / Medicinal plants and Biotechnological Intervention)

This is one of the important areas to be brought under an in-depth study and analysis with the support of modern science and technology. It is to be noted that the Vrikshayurveda experts have made several research attempts (ancient biotechnological interventions) and have developed a number of new techniques related to plant species. Some of these techniques are aroma-inducing techniques, in which they explain how to introduce scent in unscented flowers, color altering techniques in which they explain how to alter the color in cotton plant, floral techniques, techniques to ensure profuse flowering and fruiting throughout the year / off-season, production techniques for seedless fruit production, fruit preservation techniques, Fast propagation techniques, Biotechnical applications for the conservation of plant species, Plant altering / hybridization techniques, Improved fruit production techniques, Taste altering techniques of fruits etc.

Modern Biotechnology can scientifically validate these concepts, theories and hypothesis described in Vrikshayurveda literature. This may lead to the discovery of novel biodynamic molecules, elite variations of economically important medicinal plants, production of disease-resistant, high yielding varieties and those containing enriched active principles, etc. and identification of elite or superior plant genotypes.

Ayurvedic scriptures also describe characters that are based on biotic and abiotic factors as guidelines in the identification of plant types, which are most desirable for drug preparation. Validation of these characters to understand their role in the development of superior genotype can be done using tools like chemical prospecting, complimented with genetic fingerprinting. Comparative analysis of accessions collected from random sampling procedures and those based on Ayurvedic leads could definitely provide necessary insight to this end.

Apart from this, other areas brought under the discussion includes potential linkages of Vrikshayurveda in Agriculture for future application, relevant prescriptions for plant health management, review on relevant experimental trials, scope of Vrikshayurveda for conducting medicinal / food plants described in Vrikshayurveda.

Ancient biotechnological interventions

The concept of modern biotechnology became popular in 1970’s with the development of molecular biology. In fact, biotechnology is an ancient science dating back to the period before Christ. In countries like India, China, Egypt, Rome, Greece etc, bio technological means were utilized for product development during ancient times. The fermentation technique developed by ancient Ayurveda scholars was one such process for the production of medicated, self generated alcoholic drinks for health care. Similarly, the beer-making technology developed in the West using yeasts another notable biotechnological intervention.

At the global level, biotechnology is revolutionizing the development of novel processes, products, and services in different sectors like healthcare, agriculture, industry, environment etc. By effectively utilizing the rich and diverse knowledge of Ayurveda in union with modern biotechnological tools, it is possible to develop divers new processes and products.

Vrikshayurveda established a four-pronged approach towards the development of biotechnology. It is directly related with humans, plants, animals and microbes. The ultimate objective was the conservation and sustainable utilization of biological resources for ensuring food, health and economic security of the nation as well as of the future generations.

Vriksahyurvedic experts in the field of plant biotechnology have made several attempts and they have developed a number of new techniques related to:

• Aroma inducing techniques- in which they demonstrated how to impart scent in unscented flowers.
• Color altering techniques- in which they demonstrated how to change the color of cotton fibers in cotton plants.
• Floral techniques- in which they demonstrate the methods for inducing flowering in plants irrespective of seasons.
• Production techniques- seedless fruit production technology.
• Fruit preservation techniques
• Fast propagation techniques
• Biotechnological application for the conservation of plant species
• Plant altering/ hybridization techniques
• Improved fruit production techniques
• Taste altering techniques for fruiting

These techniques are to be reinvestigated and scientifically validated. Some of the research/biotechnological interventions carried by the Vrikshayurvedic scholars are given below:

Tweaking plants for fragrant flowers

The flowers in your garden could soon be attracting visitors in hordes, not only for their various hues bu their heavenly scent as well.

Scientists and plant biologists have rated the first sweet whiff of success in engineering plants to produce highly scented flowers. This was one of the highlights of the international conference held at Thiruvananthapuram on Micro and Metabolic regulators in pants hosted by the Rajiv center for biotechnology (RGCB)

Alexander Vainstein, from the faculty of agriculture, Food and Environment at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel, said, “Petunia flowers have been traditionally used for their beauty and attractive colors. My experiment led to fragrant petunia flowers.”In his presentation on the topic ‘Specialized metabolic pathways: cues controlling floral scent production’, Dr. Vainstein said, “Genetically enhanced Petunia has higher floral scent compounds and pigmentation, which can be commercially exploited. We also found humans can distinguish the scent of genetically enhanced flowers, making it a lucrative proposition for the perfume industry.”

The conference also highlighted research advances in plant biology to create wines with floral flavors. A press note quoting Dr. Vainstein said transgenic yeast had been found to be a successful agent in developing wines with unique floral flavors. (Nandakumar, 2017)

It is interesting to note that the result of this scientific study is supported by the Vrikshayurvedic observations made by the ancient scholars of Vrikshayurveda.

Biological interventions

Introduce scent in unscented flowers

1.1 Aromatic soil is prepared by mixing scented flowers and applied on the basin of the tree. This is flowed by pouring the aromatic decoction prepared from Dhava (Anofeissus latifolia) and Kadhira (Accacia chundra). Then the stem is smeared with paste of sandalwood and fumigated Gritham (clarified butter) along with aromatic plants/substances.

Colour changing technique of cotton (white color to yellow-tinged/reddish-orange similar to the colour of fire)

2.1 Powder prepare from Yavam (Hordeum vulgare), Nisa (Curcuma longa), Palasa (Butea monosperma) is sprinkled and the medicated deccotion prepared from above-mentioned ingredients is poured at the basin of the tree.

2.2 Paste prepared from the powder of Shalmali (bark) (Bombax ceiba), Nisha (Curcuma longa), Neeli (Indigo feratinctoria) Triphala Hareethaki (Terminalia Chebula) Amalaki (Emblica officinalis) Vibhitaki (Terminalia bellirica) and Kushtam (Sausssurea lappa) is mixed with medicated liquor prepared from sugar cane juice and smeared over the cotton plant for changing the color of white cotton to parrot green color.

Fruiting and flowering profusely irrespective of seasons

3.1 Paste prepared from the boiled tuberous root of Vidhari kandha (Ipomea mauritiana) in sugar cane juice is smeared over the bottom of the tree. Then sugar cane juice is poured at the basin.

3.2 Paste prepared from Tila (Sesamum indicum), Vidangam (Embelia ribes) and Gomaya (Cow Dung) is mixed with sugar cane juice is poured at the basin of the tree/plants.

Production of seedless fruit

4.1 Paste prepared from the powder of Madhu kusumam (flower of Madhuca nerifolia), Gunja (Abrus precatorius), Sarkara (jaggery) and Udumbaram (Ficus racemosa) is mixed with Gritham (clarified butter) and Madhu (honey) and the same is inserted in the hole made on the stem of the tree. The hole is sealed and smeared with dung of the calf. This is followed by irrigation with the decoction prepared form the sweet substances.

4.2. Madhu Yeshti (Glycyrrhza glabra), Sita (sugar candy), Kustam ( Saussurea lappa) and Madhu Pushpam (flower of Madhuca nerifolia) are mixed, steamed and placed at the bottom of the tree.

Increasing the shelf life of ripening fruit

5.1. Skin obtained from just above the shoulders of a goat having prominent hum is tied over the branches of the trees.

Late ripening of fruit upto 1 year

6.1. Hollow bone (Nalakashti) of a monkey, which was killed in an elephant, is pierced into the stem of the tree/plant.

To prevent falling of ripened fruit from peduncle

7.1. Bark of the branch of a tree is peeled open and smeared with a paste of Vidangam (Embelica ribes), honey and milk. This portion is tied with grass and peeled bark, followed by pouring milk.

Quick germination

8.1. Liquid bio manure prepared from Vasa (fat) and flesh of pig and fish is mixed with milk and irrigated followed by fumigation with the same ingredients.

8.2. Paste prepared from Ankola thilam (oil obtained from Alangium salvifolium, fat of Sukara (pig), and Sisumaram (Crocodylus porosus) is smeared over the seed. It is own in the soil and irrigated with Karakajala (water obtained from hail)

8.3. Seed of Dadimam (Punicum granatum) is treated through Bhavan process potentiated with blood of hen for 21 times and sown in the soil.

Altering technique

9.1. Ripened seed of Ambra (Mangifera indica) and similar trees are dipped in each of these for a particular period of time, water I which fish is cooked, Ankola thilam (oil obtained from Alangium salvifolium), Dugtham (milk) and Gritham (clarified butter). This is kept for prescribed period and then sown in the soil. By doing this seeds will germinate as Brihati (Solanum melongena).

To produce big sized fruit

10.1. Seed of Vrathaka (Solanum melongena) is smeared with Gritham (clarified butter), Mashikam (honey) and dried in sun light. Put the seed inside a tender fruit of Kushmanda (Benincasa hispida) by making a small hole followed by smearing with cow dung. When the Kushmanda ripen, separate the seed from inside and sow it.

To increase the size of banana fruit

11.1. The dung cake prepared from the dung of donkey (Khara) and horse (Thuranga) is used for heating an iron rod. The bottom of banana plant is horizontally touched with this hot iron rod. This will help to produce elephant trunk sized banana fruit.

Fruiting profusely

12.1. Nirumamasam (Human flesh) is treated with Ankola (Alangium salvifolium), Chagadugtham (goat milk), and oil cake of Tila (Sesamum indicum), Madhu (honey) and applied at the basin of the mango tree. This will result in profuse fruiting similar to grape bunch.

Altering taste

13.1. Paste prepared from the powder of Krimirupu (Emblia ribes), Yavam( Hordeum vulgare), Yeshtimadhu (Glycyrrhiza glabra) along with jaggery and milk is applied on the basin of the Nimba tree (Azadirachta indica) followed by irrigation with milk. This will help to alter the bitterness of neem fruit to sweet fruit.

Prevent decay of trees

14.1. Sukara (Sus scrofa) bone is pierced around the tree stem to prevent decay.

Others

15.1. To produce fruit for all seasons

15.1.1. A mixture prepared from cow dung, Gritham (clarified butter) and soil is applied at the basin of Koushmandi (Benincas hispida), vine which is growing through a hole made on the Manthara vriksha (Bauhinia racemosa). This result in fruiting irrespective of all season.

15.2. Disinfectant recipe

15.2.1. A paste prepared from Karanja (Pongamia pinnata), Aragwatha (Casiia fistula), Leshuna (Allium sativum), Saptaparna (Alstonia scholaris), Musta (Cyperus rotundus) and Vidanga (Emblica ribes) along with cow’s urine is applied on the affected part.

15.3. Snake repellent

15.3.1. Fumigate with seed of Karpasam (Gossypium barbadense) along with shed skin of snake

15.4. To check falling of unripe fruits

15.4.1. Irrigate with medicated milk decoction prepared from Kulatham (Dolichos biflorus), Masha (Vigna mungo), Mudga (Vigna radiata), Tila(Sesamum indicum) and Yava(Hordeum vulgare)

15.5. Pot flowered

15.5.1 Rhizome of Nymphaea treated with Ankola thila (oil obtained form Alangium salvifolium) is put in cow dung for some days and is planted in a pot filed with Karakajalam (water obtained from hail) and mud. Nymphaea will flower in the pot itself within a short time.

15.6. Induce aroma in flowers

15.6.1 Scented soil is prepared by adding different flowers having aromatic qualities, either alone or in combination. Apply scented soil, in larger quantity at the bottom of the tree.

15.7. Induce scent in unscented flowers

15.7.1 Medicated water is prepared from Kushta (Saussurea lappa), Pathram (Pogostemon heyneanus), Muramanchi (Sanseveria roxburghiana), Mustha (Cyperus rotundus), Tagaram (Valeriana wallichii) and Useeram (Chrysopogon zizanioides). Apply this medicated water at the bottom of the tree for a period of one month.

15.8. To enhance the sweetness of the fruit

15.8.1. Pour milk at the bottom of the trees

15.9. To prevent the water retention due to dew

15.9.1. Prepare ash by burning side branches of the trees growing in the middle of the paddy field. The well-powdered ash is put in a porous cloth, made into a bundle and sprinkled over the paddy field.

15.9.2. Fumigate with a mixture prepared from Arista (Azadirachta indica), Gosringa (cow’s horn), Turangakesa (horse hair), Sana (Lens culinaris), Gritham (clarified butter), Sisumara Taila (oil/fat of Esturine crocodile)(Crocodyus porosus) and Kola meda (hog fat) (Sus scrofa) to treat Vata rogas of plants.

Reference about Vrikshayurveda are available in Vedas, Upanishads, Epics, Puranas and Ayurvedic literature. It includes Charakasamhita, Susrutasamhita and Ashtangahridaya popyularly known as Brihattrai (three important treatises related to ancient Indian medicine and surgery). But it became a separate branch of Ayurveda in the later stages. It is believed that Sargadhara-1, who lived during the middle of Samhita period was specialized in Ayurvedic materia medica and he might have introduced Vrikshayurveda as a separate branch of Ayurveda. During the same period Salihotra, Nakula and Ramapada introduced Mrigayurveda (Ayurvedic veterinary medicine). The other books that provide information on Vrikshayurveda are Kautilya’s Artasastra, Amarakosa written by Amarasimha, Brihatsamhita of Varahamihira, Krishi of Parasara. Patanjali’s Mahabhasya, Vrikshayurveda of Surapala, Dhanwanthari Nighandu, Sarngadhara padhathi of Sarngadhara – II, Rajavallabha nighandu Bhavaprakasham.

A work on vrikshayurveda by Vavilla Ramaswami is available in Telugu language. Lakshmipathi devides these developments under three stages i.e.

• Preliminary stage from the Vedic period to Gupta period (600 A.D.)
• Middle period from 601 to 1536 AD and Modern period from 1536 AD onwards.
• Nene, 1996 observed the original manuscript of Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda from the Bodleian Library, Oxford, U.K. and Nalini Sadhale translated the manuscript into English.

Archaeological findings have revealed that rice (Oryza sativa) was domesticated crop grown along the banks of Ganga in the sixth millennium BC. Later, its cultivation extended to other areas. Several species of winter cereals, barley (Hordeum vulgare), oats (Avena sativa), Wheat (Triticum aestivum), Legumes (lentil - edible pulses) and Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) domesticated in Southwest Asia, where grown Northwest India before the sixth millennium BC. Some other millets, such as Sorghum (Sorghum bicolour), Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) which were earlier domesticated in Africa, found their way to the Indian subcontinent more than 4000 years ago. In addition, smaller millets such as the species of Panicum, Setaria, Echinochola and Paspalum were domesticated in India since the Neolithic period. Archaeological research also revealed cultivation of several other crops 3000-6000 years ago. These include oil seeds such as Sesame (sesamum indicum), Linseed (linum usitatissimum), Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), Mustrad (Brassica juncea), and Castor (Ricinus communis); Legumes such as Mung bean (Vigna radiata), Black gram (Vigna mungo), Field pea (Pisum sativum), Grass pea (Lathyrus sativus), and Fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum); Fibre crops such as Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum); and fruits such as Jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana), Grape (Vitis vinifera), Dates (Phoenix sylvestris), Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), Mango (Mangifera indica), Mulberry (Morus alba), and Black plum (Syzigium cumini); animals, including cow, sheep, goat, ass, dog, pig, and horse were also domesticated.

Surpala’s Vrikshyaurveda mentioned some materials (along with their properties) and practices that were supposed to be used in agriculture for the production of crops. Some of these materials and practices need attention as our agricultural community often ignore them. A few of these materials are described below in brief.

Milk and ghee have been used for centuries. Glutamate, leucine and proline from about 40% of the total amino acids in milk. Recently, a report (Arun Kumar et al., 2002) claimed that milk sprays induced systematically acquired resistance in chilli against leaf curl (a viral disease). Milk also has been used for controlling powdery mildew. The amino acid proline has been found to systemically induce resistance in plants (Niranjan and Shetty, 2002). High amounts of endogenous proline increase contents of cytokinin and auxins. Lactoferrin protein in milk and milk products has strong anti-bacterial properties. Therefore, we can say that milk treatment requires our early attention and gives us an opportunity to rediscover its beneficial effects. (Goyal, 2003).

The use of cow dung has been indicated since the time of Kautilya. It was used for dressing seeds, plastering cut ends of vegetative propagated sugarcane, dressing wounds, sprinkling diluted suspension on plants etc. since ancient times. Indian farmers use cow dung in different ways but agricultural scientists have not completely realized its importance. Agricultural scientists think that it can be used as manure only. Cow dung is a mixture of dung and urine, generally in the ratio of 3:1. It contains crude fibre, crude protein and materials that can be obtained in nitrogen free extracts and ether extracts. The cow dung also contains micronutrients. The urine portion of cow dung consists of nitrogen, potash, sulphur and traces of phosphorous. Seed is treated with cow dung in various ways, for example it is coated with cow dung residue that contains cellulose, hemi cellulose, micronutrients, metabolic nitrogen, epithelial cells from the animals, bile salt and pigment, potash, Sulphur, traces of phosphorus and a large number of bacteria. This thin dry layer of residue on seed gets absorbed.